Information Science Today » Information retrieval http://infosciencetoday.org Tue, 20 Jul 2010 19:49:08 +0000 http://wordpress.org/?v=2.8.2 en hourly 1 Development of Web-based IR Systems: A Review http://infosciencetoday.org/type/research-type/development-of-web-based-ir-systems-a-review.html http://infosciencetoday.org/type/research-type/development-of-web-based-ir-systems-a-review.html#comments Tue, 01 Dec 2009 23:44:26 +0000 Zabed Ahmed http://infosciencetoday.org/?p=645 Introduction

Information retrieval (IR) has traditionally been the domain of librarians and information professionals. IR systems have been used almost exclusively by such search experts for several reasons, such as the number of search systems available, cost, and the complexity of use requiring command language searching. However, with the rapid growth of the Internet, together with tools like World Wide Web (also known as WWW, or simply the Web), there have been significant changes and improve­ments in online information retrieval environments. These include a broad and diverse existence of both IR systems and various user interfaces and functions. This paper briefly reviews the developmental history of Web-based IR systems that are available for library reference services.

Development of Web-based IR Systems

The first IR systems allowing online searching were introduced in the early 1970s. During the 1960s, experimental IR systems were developed by libraries for the storage and retrieval of their own in-house information resources. In 1964, the US National Library of Medicine (NLM) offered on-demand batch searching (i.e., off-line) of the MEDLARS system.1 By the following year, Lockheed (Dialog), System Development Corporation (SDC), and Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) began work on their own online search services.2 In 1968, the first online search started from the State University of New York/Biomedical Communications Network (SUNY/BCN) in Albany to the MEDLARS database in Bethesda, Maryland, using dedicated lines.3 By 1969, the first packet-switched data communications network (ARPANET) had begun test operation at University of California in Los Angles (UCLA).4 The main aim was to link academic, research and military establishments in the US.

In the early 1970s, the information retrieval (IR) industry began to shift from off-line, batch-processing services to the development of online services that process requests for information entered at remote terminals in a time-sharing mode.5 The first major online search service was the NLM’s MEDLINE, the online version of MEDLARS system, which began operation in 1971.6 It was quickly followed by the commercial online search services offered by Dialog in 19727 and SDC Orbit in 1973.8 Mead Data Central introduced the LEXIS service in 1973.9 Several other commercial online search services were introduced in swift succession. The West Publishing Company introduced Westlaw in 1975.10 European host services, such as European Space Agency -Information Retrieval Service (ESA-IRS), and British Library Automated Information Service (BLAISE), were launched during the mid-1970s.11 In 1977, Bibliographic Retrieval Services (BRS) began commercial online service.12 The Dow Jones News/Retrieval service, the first online business information service, was also introduced in the same year.13

These early IR systems used complicated command language interfaces. Williams14 reviewed IR interfaces and examined both batch and online searching software, some of which included user aids such as online thesauri. Williams15 again briefly reviewed the state of the art as of late 1977 and identified several trends for the future. Among these were a more “transparent user interface” to help users avoid the need for understanding all the specific differences of databases, systems, command languages, vocabularies and access protocols. She argued that such systems would greatly increase the usability of online databases both by professionals and end-users. Hawkins16 reviewed the history of commercial online searching until 1981, including interface aspects. He noted that IR systems required search experts because of the complexity of the interfaces and differences between systems. Micho and Lee17 identified similar problems.

The first intensive marketing to end-users came in the early 1980s after IBM introduced its PC.18 Several online services introduced new products and services to attract the end-user market. Some services offered simplified versions of their search interfaces and subsets of their databases, available only after business hours and at a significant discount. BRS/After Dark and Dialog’s Knowledge Index offered low-cost access to anyone with a dial-up terminal to a variety of databases in evenings and weekend hours.19 At the same time, “front-end” software packages were developed to make online searching more accessible to end-users. The capabilities and purposes of these packages varied considerably. Some offered merely automatic dial-in and logon facilities, some provided extensive augmentation of one system or of one or a few databases, and others offered more limited assistance for multiple systems and databases.20 These front-ends, however, had not been well accepted, mostly because the underlying systems were difficult for end-users to use successfully in searching.21 In the 1980s, efforts were also made to apply expert systems and natural language techniques to online searching. Several operational prototypes were made, but they all had very little influence on commercial online searching.

In the 1980s, online search systems used a variety of interaction styles to make online searching more accessible to users. For example, After Dark subscribers used menus; Knowledge Index subscribers could choose to search with simplified commands or with menus.22 BRS/BRKTHRU offered a subset of commands which was easier to learn. EasyNet offered a common command language to facilitate searching on  various retrieval systems. ProSearch provided the user with the option to choose one language from a predefined set of host languages and to use it to search all online hosts accessed by the search system.23 Crawford and Edwards24 described a front-end software that took advantage of direct manipulation interface to search information on Dialog. The FIRSTUSER used a combined menu and form filling interface.25

There was a continued development of commercial search services in the 1980s. Mead Data Central introduced its NEXIS service in 1980.26 In the same year, DataStar was launched by a consortium led by Radio Suisse, and became one of the most important online vendors for business and bio-medical information in Europe.27 In 1984, H. W. Wilson began offering online access to its popular indexes via WILSONLINE.28 By the mid-1980s, several online commercial search services were available to libraries. Commercial search services had also increased in sophistication and in capabilities offered, and continued to add databases regularly. By 1983, Dialog offered over 170 databases; SDC and BRS offered more than 70 databases each.29 In the mid-1980s, databases were also published on CD-ROMs for mounting at user sites. They had a dramatic impact on end-user searching in a way that was free at ‘point of search.’ Some CD-ROMs also offered menu-based interfaces which also helped end-user searching.

There was much commercial activity amongst online service vendors in the 1980s. Pergamon Infoline, a Maxwell Company acquired Orbit in 1987.30 In 1988, Knight-Ridder purchased Dialog Information Services.31 Maxwell bought BRS Information Technologies and renamed the whole group as Maxwell Online in 1989.32 However, despite end-user movement in the 1980s, high price and unfriendly search interfaces largely restricted online searching to professional searchers. In all this time, very little was done to enhance the search interfaces. Rather, online search services concen­trated on loading more and more databases.

In the early 1990s, a few attempts were made to enhance the IR interfaces. In 1992, Westlaw introduced Westlaw Is Natural (WIN), the first natural language application in the commercial online environment.33 Mead Data Central quickly followed with its FREESTYLE in 1993.34 Dialog’s similar offering, TARGET was also launched in the same year.35 All these three systems provided ranked lists of retrieved documents. The proliferation of online search services continued into the 1990s. OCLC launched its EPIC service in 1990.36 In 1991, OCLC introduced FirstSearch, a menu-based search service designed for end-user searching.37 Proquest Direct from UMI were introduced in 1995.38 In the same year, Profound, a business-oriented search service, was introduced by MAID.39 Online Search services were also sold and consolidated in the 1990s. Maxwell Online became InfoPro Technologies in 1992.40 Thomson acquired ISI in the same year.41 In the following year, Knight-Ridder acquired the DataStar service from Radio Suisse.42 Reed-Elsevier bought LEXIS and NEXIS services from Mead Data Central in 1994.43 In the same year, InfoPro Technologies sold its three divisions – Orbit, BRS, and BRS Software – to Questel, CD Plus, and DataWare respectively.44 CD Plus changed its name to Ovid Technologies in 1995.45 West Publishing Company merged with Thomson Legal Publishing to form West Group in 1996.46 The Dialog Corporation was formed through the merger of MAID and Knight-Ridder in 1997.47 In 2000, Thomson acquired Dialog’s Information Services Division, including Dialog, DataStar, and Profound services.48

Since mid-1990s, several Web-based search services began their operation. Some online services reconfigured their services for Web implementations that replaced or coexisted with earlier versions. OCLC’s FirstSearch is an example of an existing search system which was reconfigured for Web access. The Web-based version of FirstSearch was released in 1996.49 This replaced FirstSearch’s original menu-driven interface. The NLM replaced its conventional search service with two Web-based offerings: PubMed and Internet Grateful Med.50 DataStar Web was launched in December 1996.51 ISI introduced a Web interface to its citation databases in 1997.52 Dialog released Web-based DialogWeb and DialogClassic on the Web in 1997 and 1998 respectively as alternatives to its Classic Dialog service.53 The Proquest Direct service introduced its Web access in 1996.54 Ovid Technologies released the Ovid Web Gateway in the same year.55 By the following year, WilsonWeb was launched as the Web-based successor to the WILSONLINE.56 Dow Jones introduced Web version of News/Retrieval service in the same year.57 West Group launched the Web-based access to Westlaw in 1998.58 Today, almost all major IR systems have Web access to their services.

A fundamental characteristic of Web-based IR systems is that they are inherently interactive and provide a variety of ways for users to interact with both information and systems. Xie and Cool59 identified the following advantages of Web IR systems: (a) guide user access to a variety of databases; (b) facilitate multiple search strategies; (c) assist using thesaurus terms; (d) offer interactive help facilities; (e) offer multiple manipulations of output; and (f) provide iterative movement of links. Despite these advantages, many Web-based IR interfaces are still difficult to use. This results in confu­sion, frustration, and failure for both novice and experienced users.

There have been some studies comparing the effectiveness of Web and non-Web interfaces in IR systems. Koehler and Mincey60 compared the dial-up access and Web-based access methods, and concluded that FirstSearch Web was a major improvement over the dial-up access. Bates61 compared Web-based packages Dialog Web and DataStar Web, with the Classic, ASCII, dial-up version of Dialog. She noted the benefits of the Web-based version, but also considered the Web-based product to be less efficient and responsive for the experienced users than the ASCII product.

Barker62 compared online searching on DataStar using the Classic command language interface with access via the Web interface DataStar Web. The functionality of the two interfaces was compared in terms of entering the system, selecting a database, searching, output and display, terminating the session, error messages and help pages, and support, training and documentation. She concluded that although both interfaces offer access to the same databases, there were significant differences. Many of these differences may affect search performance by both novice and experienced users.

Xie and Cool63 also compared Web and non-Web interfaces and found that some of the functions of Web-based interfaces outperformed non-Web interfaces, but at the same time they were not universally preferred. Experienced searchers preferred both greater user control and greater ease of use in the search process. They concluded with an argument that greater attention should be paid to the tension between user control and ease of use in the design of effective and useful interactive IR systems.

The rate of growth of all aspects of IR industry has been truly extraordinary since the beginning in the early 1970s. Williams64 estimated that from 1975 to 2000, the number of online databases increased from 301 to 12,417; prod­u­cers had increased from 200 to 4,017; and vendors had grown from 105 to 2,891. In addition, the estimated number of online searches had increased from approximately 7.5 million in 1982 to 90 million in 1998.65 It is hardly an understatement to say that the world of online searching has changed drama­tically with the development of the Web. As Saffady66 pointed out, “the Web has prompted the development of new online search service, forced existing services to reconfigure their offerings and improve their user interfaces, and catalyzed other industry trends, such as end-user searching and the develop­ment of new pricing models.”

Conclusion

This review suggests that there has been a general lack of attention given to interface issues by database vendors. Early IR systems used very structured command mode interfaces. The users of these early systems were largely professional searchers as intermediaries in library settings. Then attempts have been made to develop better interface design for end-users using features such as menu-selection, form fill-in, natural language, and direct manipulation interfaces. The development of the Web-based IR systems has already left a tremendous mark on user access to such systems. First, the Web has made vast quantities of information resources available globally. Second, it has made cheaper and wider end-user access to various online databases.

Despite recent development of Web-based IR interfaces, little empirical research has been carried out about the usability of these systems with respect to interface features and functionalities. More­over, reviews of Web IR systems have been uncritical in their discussion of the search interface, or have been limited to subjective comments. Although few studies suggested the need for improving search interfaces, they fail to provide specific recommendations. Thus, the impor­tance of evaluating the interfaces and end-user searching is crucial for the future development of the technology and its use in information access. Some of the problems that IR faces today can obviously benefit from Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) research. In particular, the maturity of user-centred design can help developing more usable IR systems and assessing how these systems are adapting to user needs.

References

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2.      Chowdhury (GG) (1999). Introduction to Modern Information Retrieval. London: Library Association Publishing

3.      Saffady (William) (2000). The state of library automation at 2000. Library Technology Reports, 36(1), 67-101

4.      Lynch (CA) and Preston (CM) (1990). Internet access to information resources. In: Williams (ME) ed. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology, 25. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 263-315

5.      Lancaster (FW) (1978). Towards Paperless Information Systems. New York: Academic Press

6.      McCarn (DB) (1980). MEDLINE: an introduction to online searching. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 31(3), 181-192

7.      Walker (G) and Janes (J) (1999). Online Retrieval: A Dialogue of Theory and Practice. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited

8.      Borgman (CL), Moghdam (D), and Corbett (PK) (1984). Effective Online Searching: A Basic Text. New York: Marcel Dekker

9.      Hartley (RJ), Keen (EM), Large (JA), and Tedd (LA) (1990). Online Searching: Principles and Practice. London: Bowker-Saur

10.  West Group (2003). About Westlaw. Available at: http://www.westlaw.com/

11.  Orton (D) (1995). Online Searching in Science and Technology: An Introductory Guide to Equipment, Databases and Search Techniques. London: The British Library

12.  Rowley (JE) (1987). Organising Knowledge: An Introduction to Information Retrieval. Hants: Gower

13.  Moulton (JC) (1979). Dow Jones News/Retrieval. Database, 2(1), 54-64

14.  Williams (ME) (1974). Generation and use of machine-readable bibliographic databases. In: Cuadra (CA), Luke (AW) and Harris (JL) eds. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology, 9. Washington, DC: American Society for Information Science, 221-284

15.  Williams (ME) (1978). Online retrieval – today and tomorrow. Online Review, 2(4), 353-366

16.  Hawkins (DT) (1981). Online information retrieval systems. In: Williams (ME) ed. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology, 16. New York: Knowledge Industry Publications, 171-208

17.  Micho (WH), and Lee (J) (1987). End-user searching of bibliographic databases. In: Williams (ME) ed. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology, 22. New York: Elsevier Science, 227-263

18.  Tenopir (Carol) (1995). Impacts of electronic reference on instruction and reference. In: Shirato (L) ed. The Impact of Technology on Library Instruction: Papers and Session Materials Presented at the 21st National LOEX Library Instruction Conference, 14-15 May, Racine, Wisconsin. Ann Arbor, MI: Pierian Press, 1-8

19.  Janke (RV) (1984). Online after six: end-user searching comes of age. Online, 8(6), 15-29

20.  Borgman (CL), Case (DO) and Meadow (CT) (1989). The design and evaluation of a front-end user interface for energy researchers. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 40(2), 99-109

21.  Harman (D) (1992). User-friendly systems instead of user-friendly front-ends. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 43(2), 164-174

22.  Kennedy (B) (1993). Comparing menu systems for end-users: After Dark, Knowledge Index, and FirstSearch. Online, 17(4), 52-57

23.  Efthimiadis (EN) (1990). Online searching aids: a review of front ends, gateways and other interfaces. Journal of Documentation, 46(3), 218-262

24.  Crawford (RG) and Edwards (ME) (1985). A prototype mouse-based interface to drug-related information. Online Review, 9(6), 471-487

25.  Crawford (RG) and Becker (HS) (1986). A novice user’s interface to information retrieval systems. Information Processing & Management, 22(4), 287-298

26.  Provenzano (D) (1981). NEXIS. Database, 4(4), 30-41

27.  Convey (John) (1989). Online Information Retrieval: An Introductory Manual to Principles and Practice. London: Clive Bingley

28.  Seale (C) (1989). Getting the most out of WILSONLINE. Database, 12(2), 55-61

29.  Borgman (CL), Moghdam (D), and Corbett (PK) (1984). Op cit.

30.  Lambert (N) (2000). Orbit and Questel-Orbit: farewell and hail. Searcher, 8(2), 73-76

31.  Hartley (RJ), Keen (EM), Large (JA), and Tedd (LA) (1990). Op cit.

32.  Orton (D) (1995). Op cit.

33.  Paris (LA) and Tibbo (H R) (1998). Freestyle vs. Boolean: a comparison of partial and exact match retrieval systems. Information Processing & Management, 34(2-3), 175-190

34.  Basch (R) (1997). Online news: twenty years of online headlines – reprinted from the newpages of earlier Online and Database magazines. Online, 21(1), 67-70

35.  Losee (RM) and Paris (LA) (1999). Measuring search-engine quality and query difficulty: ranking with Target and Freestyle. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(10), 882-889

36.  Whitcomb (L) (1990). OCLC’s EPIC system offers a new way to search the OCLC database. Online, 14(1), 45-50

37.  Kennedy (B) (1993). Op cit.

38.  Saffady (William) (2000). Op cit.

39.  Basch (R) (1997). Op cit.

40.  Questel-Orbit (2003). About Questel-Orbil. Available at: http://www.questel-orbit.com

41.  Institute for Scientific Information (2003). Company Timeline. Available at: http://www.isinet.com/

42.  Dialog Corporation (2003). Key Dates for the Dialog Corporation. Available at: http://www.dialog.com/

43.  Reed-Elsevier (2003). Company History. Available at: http://www.reed-elsevier.com

44.  Orton (D) (1995). Op cit.

45.  Ovid Technologies (2003). The History of Ovid Technologies. Available at: http://www.ovid.com/

46.  Thomson Corporation (2003). History of the Thomson Corporation. Available at: http://www.thomcorp.com/

47.  Large (A), Tedd (LA), and Hartley (RJ) (1999). Information Seeking in the Online Age: Principles and Practice. London: Bowker-Saur

48.  Thomson Corporation (2003). Op cit.

49.  Perlman (Gary) (2000). The FirstSearch user interface architecture: universal access for any user, in many language, on any platform. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Universal Usability, 16-17 November, Wasington, DC. New York: ACM, 1-8

50.  Saffady (William) (2000). Op cit.

51.  Barker (AL) (1997). DataStar Web: living up to the hype? An evaluation of the interface and search system. In: Online Information 97: Proceedings of the 21st International Online Information Meeting, 9-11 December, London. Oxford: Learned Information, 213-222

52.  Oxley (H) (1998). ISI spins a Web of Science. Database, 21(2), 37-40

53.  Dialog Corporation (2003). Op cit.

54.  Basch (R) (1997). Op cit.

55.  Ovid Technologies (2003). Op cit.

56.  H. W. Wilson (2003). Historical Highlights from H. W. Wilson’s Past. Available at: http://www.hwwilson.com/

57.  Marcus (J) (1998). Dow Jones on the Web. Database, 21(1), 76-76

58.  West Group (2003). Op cit.

59.  Xie (H) and Cool (C) (2000). Ease of use versus user control: an evaluation of Web and non-Web interfaces of online databases. Online Information Review, 24(2), 102-115

60.  Koehler (WC) and Mincey (D) (1996). FirstSearch and NetFirst-Web and dial-up access: plus ca change, plus c’est la meme chose? Searcher, 4(6), 24-28

61.  Bates (Mary Ellen) (1997). Knight-Ridder on the Web: a brave new world for searchers? Searcher, 5(6), 28-37

62.  Barker (AL) (1998). DataStar Web: a comparison with ‘classic’ DataStar command language searching. Online & CD-ROM Review, 22(3), 55-67

63.  Xie (H) and Cool (C) (2000). Online interface comparison: features and functionalities. In: Proceedings of the 21st National Online Meeting, 16-18 May, New York. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 513-522

64.  Williams (ME) (2001). Highlights of the online database industry and the Internet: 2001. In: Proceedings of the 22nd National Online Meeting, 15-17 May, New York. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1-4

65.  Williams (ME) (2000). Highlights of the online database industry and the Internet: 2000. In: Proceedings of the 21st National Online Meeting, 16-18 May, New York. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1-6

66.  Saffady (William) (2000). Op cit.

Suraiya Begum
Associate Professor,
Department of Information Science and Library
Management, University of Dhaka,
Dhaka – 1000, Bangladesh

Dr. S. M. Zabed Ahmed
Assistant Professor,
Department of Information Science and Library
Management, University of Dhaka,
Dhaka – 1000, Bangladesh

]]> http://infosciencetoday.org/type/research-type/development-of-web-based-ir-systems-a-review.html/feed 0 JOB SATISFACTION, AND SOME EXPLANATORY VARIABLES, AMONG FLIGHT ATTENDANTS http://infosciencetoday.org/type/articles/job-satisfaction-and-some-explanatory-variables-among-flight-attendants.html http://infosciencetoday.org/type/articles/job-satisfaction-and-some-explanatory-variables-among-flight-attendants.html#comments Thu, 26 Nov 2009 02:03:22 +0000 admin http://infosciencetoday.org/?p=537 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between job satisfaction as it relates to downsizing, control of the work environment, communication with management, and perceptions of rules and policies of the organization. With the advent of airline consolidation, debt loads, years of labor unrest, higher fares, and questionable services for passengers, this study showed significant positive relationships between job satisfaction and for management to be more open in their communications with the flight attendants and to develop rules and policies that are helpful in the performance of the flight attendants’ duties. This study further develops some understanding of the unique situation of flight attendants on the job and what can be implemented by management in building a stronger organization and in developing a more productive workforce.

I. THE PROBLEM

The birth of air transportations started when entrepreneur Walter T. Varney launched the first “air mail’ operation on April 6, 1926. This was the beginning of commercial aviation in the United Stated. (United Airlines History, 2000).

On May 15, 1930, Boeing Air Transport was the first to introduce stewardesses for the comfort of the passengers that used this form of transportation (United Air Lines History). The airline industry has changed dramatically in the last fifty years. Flight attendants today are both male and female and there are no longer restrictions on age as in the past (United Air Lines History).

The stress level of airline flight attendants is well documented. Smithsons’ (2000) research on how passengers have become violent during flights, and how attendants have to be the ones to restrain these passengers, reveal that these occurrences are on the rise. Dealing with passengers at 30,000 feet in the air is a daunting responsibility for each flight attendant on an airline. The airlines are trying to fight back with respect to passengers who are rude, rowdy and violent. Kleiner’s (1998) statistics show that on just one major U.S. airline there was a record 921 flight incidents ranging from tampering with the smoke alarm to an assault on a flight attendant. Kleiner’s research also shows that the over-consumption of alcohol is a contributing factor for this rise in passenger air violence. Passengers fail to realize that they could receive up to twenty years in prison and up to $250,000 in fines from the federal government for such behavior.

Flight attendants have seen a proliferation of changes in their profession. Stricter policies and procedures have been handed down by the upper levels of management (Murphy, 1998). This has resulted in flight attendants not complying completely with management’s policy changes.

Quite often the flight attendants resist the change that is imposed by management. A study that was done by Murphy (1998) showed that flight attendants appeared to comply with constraining organizational policies, but privately resists the policies that really have no value in the protection of each passenger. “Her supervisor had recently told Terry that she could no longer wear the Santa earrings she had worn every holiday for fifteen years. To get around the policy, she took off her earrings when she was in the main lounge and then promptly and proudly put them back on once she stepped on board the airplane” (Murphy, p. 499).

In 1997 there were 900 Hawaii based flight attendants for this major airline. In 2005, 47.2% remain out of this group. The reason for the lower staffing of these flight attendants stemmed from:

  1. The re-routing of flights coming out of Los Angeles going directly to Asian destinations.
  2. Hawaii being a major recreational/tourist destination has declined.

II. PROBLEM BACKGROUND

Job satisfaction is a major issue with all types of businesses in an organization. If there is dissatisfaction on the job 30,000 feet above the ground, does it affect the service and quality of the airline? Where does dissatisfaction begin? Does it come from inadequate communication from top levels of management? Are the attendants’ benefits eroding as airlines’ profit and growth increase? Major airlines, in their attempts to trim costs, have reduced the layers of management by ten percent to encourage their staff at the lower ranks to be involved in the decision making process (Institute of Directors, 1997). Quite often when an organization decides to trim the middle level of management, it also cuts off the communication process that flows between the lower levels and the higher echelons of management. When employees do not have someone to voice their concerns, frustration and dissatisfaction will negatively affect their job.

Quite often, reducing the levels of management creates an environment of confusion for employees because of a lack of guidance and direction within the organization (Certo, 1997). This coupled with major changes in the industry and businesses has resulted in more pressure on everyone in the airline industry.

A lack of communication by management can also cause confusion, distrust and low morale within the company. Organizations have to be honest with their employees. An organization should communicate to their employees the truth about what is happening within the company. When employees know what is happening, they are better able to cope with the changes that will take place within the firm (Hadden, 2000).

Employee frustration usually sets in when employees are not properly trained to do their job. The benefits of training each employee properly are numerous. Training should be looked at as an investment by the company. To have a workforce that is smarter and more competitive in the marketplace can lead to a competitive advantage for the organization (Mullns, 2000). Training also can develop a group of employees into a highly cohesive, motivated, satisfied and productive group, if a process of team building and camaraderie are developed early on in the employees’ training program (Gunn, 2000). It is thought that flying alone and moving around a lot, as flight attendants do, can be a lonely work experience.

Organizational effectiveness is also correlated with job satisfaction (Hiltebeitel, 2000). Most would agree that an organization has to develop goals. Developmental goals have to be implemented to facilitate the training needs of its workers for job satisfaction. Hiltebeitel’s research discusses the process of facilitating professional goals and expectations and recording the employee’s performance for evaluation. Similarly, employee satisfaction often hinges on how well an organization clarifies what is expected of each employee and how management guides the employees on what is expected and the outcomes of his/her position (O’Dirscoll & Beehr, 2000). When there is little guidance, job satisfaction is thought to be reduced.

III. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between job satisfaction and management communication processes and also, employee benefits given to flight attendants based in Hawaii. Was dissatisfaction on the job an organizational issue or a personal issue pertaining to each individual flight attendant?

IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

It was predicted that the flight attendants’ satisfaction on the job was directly related to the following questions.

  • Does management communicate with the attendants adequately on what is expected of each of them?
  • Is promotion on the job related to employee performance?
  • Has downsizing caused the Hawaii based flight attendants to have a high level of dissatisfaction on the job?
  • Have changes in their work environment caused dissatisfaction on the job?

It was hoped that this research would answer all of these questions and develop insight on increasing worker satisfaction and productivity for the airline industry.

V. LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS

There were 425 Hawaii based flight attendants serving this major airline. The use of Dr. Paul E. Spector’s Job Satisfaction Survey (1994), JSS will be used to weigh the satisfaction level of these attendants. Dr. Spector’s survey was developed to measure the satisfaction level of people in the human services professions but should also work well with flight attendants. His questionnaire measures employee attitudes about their job and their perception of their work environment. His questionnaire has also been used in the public and private sectors in the United States and foreign countries (Spector, 1985). Vyskocil-Czajkowski and Gilmore (1992) used Dr. Spector’s survey on food service personnel and Zia-Mian (1997) did an analysis of job satisfaction between Jamaican and American employees using the thirty-six-question to evaluate job satisfaction. The questionnaire’s thirty-six questions were generalized and were thought to work well with the flight attendants too.

Dr. Spector’s Work Locus of Control Scale was also used to evaluate the flight attendants’ beliefs in the workplace.  The “scale has been shown to relate to several work variables, including job performance and job satisfaction.  It also related to counterproductive behavior and organizational commitment” (Spector, 1999, p. 5).

Spector’s Locus of control looks at internals and externals.  The internals within the organization look to themselves for direction, and the externals depend on outside factors that include company rules and their supervisors.  Flight attendants have to make decisions that affect the lives of their passengers.  What type of individuals are flight attendants?  Internal or external employees?  Are flight attendants satisfied with their profession?  What factors cause dissatisfaction for this group?  Spector predicts that “when task or organizational demands require initiative and independence of action, the internal would be more suitable; when the requirement is for compliance, however, the external would be more appropriate” (1999, p. 486).

The Organizational Evaluation Survey (Choy, 2001) with a six point rating scale, was used to gain information about each flight attendant’s opinion as it relates to the effects of downsizing, route changes, communication levels between management and subordinates, and rules and policies as it affected each attendant’s performance on the job.

The survey was sent out to the 425 Hawaii based flight attendants of a major airline. It is to be noted that the sample may not be representative of all flight attendants of this airline across the United States.

VI. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

There have been numerous research studies on employee satisfaction as it relates to human service organizations and governmental agencies. Cobb, (1998), studied nurses and their satisfaction on the job, Durr (1996) looked at state agencies, and Palmer & East (1993) researched academia. Job satisfaction, as it pertains to flight attendants in the United States, is very limited. The present research was developed to gain further knowledge and information on what constitutes the flight attendant’s satisfaction on the job and how management can develop programs, compensation, and policies to open up communication with their employees. The flight attendants profession is stressful and customers who travel fail to understand the advanced training and responsibility each flight attendant carries. It is imperative then, for the airlines to insure that flight attendants have maximum conditions for effective work performance. The present study aims to provide information on the status of flight attendants and their perceptions of their work environment.

VII. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The airline industry has gone through a tremendous shakedown as an industry in general. Zellner (2000) sees the risk that could develop when airlines consolidate. Harrison (2000) also sees labor problems developing as major airlines merge. Harrison cites the biggest obstacle with mergers are unions negotiating seniority pertaining to its employees.

The increase in delays for airline travelers, whether for business or pleasure, has created pressures for all facets of employees in the industry, especially the flight attendants who serve these customers. With the pressure mounting for on-time scheduling by the airlines, coupled with the dissatisfaction of these air travelers, how does this group of professionals, the airline flight attendants, cope with the external and internal pressures of their job?

Violence and anti-social behavior also has escalated aboard airlines. Flight attendants now have to cope with this added pressure 30,000 feet in the air. Study done by Smithson(2000) states that alcohol, altitude, crowding, cabin air pressure and poor air quality are major contributors of anti-social behavior with the passengers.

The airline industry has downsized during the last ten years. How does this affect the flight attendants morale? Organizations oftentimes downsize to maintain a competitive edge in the marketplace. But does downsizing create value for a company? Piturro (1999) sees downsizing as a threat to an organization’s intangible assets such as the organization’s “memory” that is in each employee within the organization. An organization’s culture and history is preserved by employees that understand the goals and ideas of the organization.

VIII. OUTCOME

425 questionnaires were given to the Hawaii-based flight attendants. The questionnaire was given to a representative of the flight attendants based in Hawaii and a letter was sent with the questionnaire explaining the purpose of the study. Voluntary participation of each individual was stressed and no identifiable information would be disclosed. All results are presented as an aggregate, summary data.

The Job Satisfaction Survey was the primary mode of obtaining each flight attendant’s view on how they perceive their job. The Work Locus of Control was used to calculate the attendants’ beliefs about the control levels in their jobs. The sixteen-item scale was designed to assess control beliefs in the workplace. The

Organizational Evaluation Survey (Choy) was used to evaluate the opinion of each flight attendant as it related to downsizing, communication with management, route changes, and rules and policies of the airline.

IX.  DATE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Hypothesis
H1A: Flight attendants who perceive they have more control of their work environment will be more satisfied on the job.

Null Hypothesis
HOA: There is no difference with flight attendants who perceive they have more control of their work environment that they will be more satisfied on the job.
H2B: Flight Attendants who perceive rules and policies as helpful will be more satisfied on the job.

Null Hypothesis
HOB: There is no difference with flight attendants who perceive rules and policies as helpful will be more satisfied on the job.
H3C: Flight Attendants who view downsizing as detrimental to their job will be less satisfied on the job.

Null Hypothesis
HOC: There is no difference with flight attendants who view downsizing as detrimental to their job will be less satisfied on the job.
H4D: Flight Attendants who have good communication with management will be more satisfied on the job.

Null Hypothesis
HOD: There is no difference with flight attendants who have god communication with management will be more satisfied on the job.

X. RESULTS

There were 425 flight attendants based in Hawaii in this particular organization. They had a combined average time on the job of 27.5 years. Out of the 425 flight attendants, 85.3% were females and 14.7% were males.

The Job Satisfaction Survey, Work Locus Control Survey, and the Organizational Evaluation Survey were given by a senior flight attendant for distribution and passed out to the flight attendants by the chief bursars on each flight.

  1. Job Satisfaction Survey had a return rate of 120 respondents out of the original 425 (a response rate of 28.2%).
  2. Work Locus of Control Survey had a return rate of 47 respondents (a response rate of 11%).
  3. Organizational Evaluation Survey had a return rate of 58 respondents (a response rate of 13.6%).

The disparity on the return rate for the three surveys returned was questioned and the following information was obtained. The Job Satisfaction Survey was the first survey shown each flight attendant, followed by the Organizational Evaluation Survey, and finally the Work Locus of Control Survey. The surveys were administered during flight time while the attendants were on duty. Towards the end of the flight, what was not completed was turned in as a complete packet. Hence, the disparity of completed returns on the three surveys.

XI. JOB SATISFACTION SURVEY

A brief analysis of the Job Satisfaction Survey, (Table 1.1) shows that:

The perception of benefits are below average on a scale that ranges from 1 through 6 (Benefits=2.31). The raw scores for the scales can range from a low of 1 to a high of 6, with higher scores indicating higher levels of job satisfaction. However, they seem to enjoy their work (Nature of Work=4.31), and co-workers (4.60).

Table 1.1 Job Satisfaction survey Summary-Flight Attendants Descriptive Statistics

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XII. LOCUS OF CONTROL

The Work Locus of Control Scale was designed to assess control beliefs in the workplace. Spector’s Locus of Control Survey showed a mean of 39.9 with a standard deviation across samples of 10.0 across a U.S. sample.

The Locus of Control Survey of the 47 flight attendants who completed the survey showed the following: Mean: 44.59 with a standard deviation of 9.77. This suggests some similarity to Spector’s Locus of Control Survey taken in the United States.

The mean of 44.59 fits into Spector’s norms as it pertained to the industrialized countries of France-45.0, England=43.5, Canada=40.6, Germany=40.4, and the U.S.=39.9. The mean raw scores for the scales can range from a low of 1 to a high of 6, with higher scores indicating they perceived they had control over their work environment (Table 1.3). the overall mean score was a 2.78.

A brief analysis of the Locus of Control Survey reveals that the flight attendants believed that who you know is more important than what you know (3.8). The flight attendants also perceived that most employees have more influence on their supervisors than they think they do (3.6).

Table 1.3 Locus of Control Summary-Hawaii Based Flight Attendants Descriptive Statistics

3

XIII. ORGANIZATIONAL EVALUATION SURVEY

The Organizational Evaluation Survey (Table 1.4) looked at four key issues as it relates to the attendants based in Hawaii. There was a six point rating scale from a low of 1 to a high of 6. The lower scores indicates significant issues as it pertained to:

  1. Downsizing
  2. Route change
  3. Communication
  4. Rules and regulations

Questions 1 through 4 evaluated whether downsizing was detrimental to their job.   Questions 5 through 8 asked whether route changes created problems for them on their jobs.   Questions 9 through 11 asked if the flight attendants communication with management was adequate.  Question 12 through 15 asked if the flight attendants found the rules, policies and guidelines set by the airline helpful to their job or not.  The questions that were worded negatively were reversed in the scoring to correlate to the other positive worded questions.

The Organizational Evaluation Survey reveals that the flight attendants perceive that downsizing, route changes, communication with management, and rules and policies are issues that have to be addressed with management. With an average mean of 1.824 out of a possible 6 point rating, the lower numbers indicates that the flight attendants that participated in the survey perceived organizational issues as relates to downsizing, route changes, communication with management, and rules and policies with this major airline as issues that have to be addressed.

Table 1.4 Organizational Evaluation Survey Summary One-Sample Statistics

4

XIV. TESTS OF HYPOTHESES 1,2, 3, 4

The following information reports on the test of the hypotheses (Table 1.5):

H1: Flight attendants who perceive that they have more control of their work environment will be more satisfied on the job.
The correlation between control of their work and satisfaction on the job showed a negative .222/Pearson Correlation (p<05).
This may be a function of the sample seen here, or perhaps as control goes up, satisfaction does indeed go down. Quite possibly the flight attendants who participated in the survey did not want that much control on the job.

H2: Flight Attendants who perceive rules and policies as helpful will be more satisfied on the job.
The correlation on perceived helpfulness of rules and policies in relationship to satisfaction on the job was a .397/Pearson Correlation (p<.05).

H3: flight Attendants who view downsizing as a detrimental to their job will be less satisfied on the job.
The correlation of downsizing as being detrimental to their job in relationship to satisfaction showed a .111/Pearson Correlation (p>.05).
This again may have been a function of sample size as stated above.

H4: Flight Attendants who have good communication with management will be more satisfied on the job.
The correlation between communication with management and satisfied on the job showed a . 303/Pearson Correlation (p<.05).
In fact, perceptions of rules and policies as being helpful to the flight attendants and good communication may be related.

Table 1.5 Correlation to Job Satisfaction Correlation of Job Satisfaction with key factors

5

XV. HYPOTHESES OUTCOMES

Hypothesis H1: Flight Attendants who perceive that they have more control of their work environment will be more satisfied on the job (a significant negative correlation).

Hypothesis H2: Flight Attendants who perceive rules and policies as helpful will be more satisfied on the job showed a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction. hypothesis

H3: Flight Attendants who view downsizing as detrimental to their job will be less satisfied on the job showed no significant relationship to satisfaction on the job.

Hypothesis H4: Flight Attendants who have good communication with management will be more satisfied on the job showed a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction.

XVI. SUMMARY

Flight attendants have experienced greater stress levels on the job recently. With the increase in flight delays and labor management disagreements, flight attendants’ satisfaction on the job is a key issue for discussion (Jet). Detailed studies of flight attendants’ satisfaction on the job is limited however. This study, hopefully, adds some understanding to the unique situation of flight attendants on the job and what can be implemented by management in building a stronger organization and perhaps developing a more productive workforce.

Downsizing has increased in the airline industry. Piturro sees downsizing as a threat to an organization’s intangible assets. This intangible asset is the wealth of knowledge and understanding on the job that each seasoned person brings to the position.

Communicating with each employee and letting them know what is happening within the organization is of paramount importance in almost any job setting. Great corporations (Hadden) communicate the truth to teach employee within the organization, whether the news is good or bad. Gresing-Pophal also views trust and honesty as an important aspect of the communication process. Listening to each employees’ concerns and doing something about their concerns is thought to enhance trust between the employees and management.

Davis stresses the need for open communication with management and its employees. Heerzberg’s model looks at the factors that can develop satisfaction for each employee to do the job with professionalism and care. By giving an individual the ability to contribute to his/her job and by giving them leeway to get the job done in the way he/she feels is the best way, satisfaction is thought to follow. When a person is complemented by management for an exceptional job, being recognized for his/her achievements, a sense of pride can develop which is thought to create an atmosphere of satisfaction and worker motivation.

Schermerorn et.a. also see job satisfaction affecting employee turnover. Dissatisfied workers are most likely to quit their job. With the high cost of a dissatisfied employee leaving, this can lower employee morale further and cause operational disruptions within the organization. Employees have to have a sense of control in their work. If an employee believes they have control over their work environment, “…they do their jobs as if they own the company” (Dessler, p. 476).

Organizations must develop a system that:

  • Fosters people-first values
  • Encourages extensive two-way communications
  • Builds a sense of shared fate and community
  • Provides vision
  • Uses value-based hiring
  • Uses financial rewards and profit sharing
  • Encourages self-actualizing

XVII. CONCLUSIONS

This study looked at the profession of flight attendants of a major airline based in Hawaii. Working as a flight attendant is a stressful job. Are the changes in the airline industry as it relates to downsizing, management communication, control of the work itself and perceptions of rules and regulations related to a deterioration of the flight attendants’ satisfaction on the job? Currivan’s research shows that role ambiguity, role conflict, and pay have little effect on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The key may be open communication with management and its employees.

It is not known why the correlation between control of their work and satisfaction on the job was negative and significant. Hypothesis H1 states that flight attendants who perceive that they have more control of their work environment will be more satisfied on the job. The findings here were clearly contrary to some of the previous research studies (Cobb, Palmer & East). This may be a function of the sample seen here, or perhaps as control goes up, satisfaction does indeed go down. Quite possibly the flight attendants who participated in the survey did not want that much control on the job.

Hypothesis H2 stated that flight attendants who perceive rules and policies as helpful will be more satisfied on the job. The results of the survey showed a significant .397/Pearson Correlation. It is also not known why perceptions of downsizing as being detrimental was not related to less satisfaction on the job by the flight attendants. Hypothesis H3 states that flight attendants who view downsizing as detrimental to their jobs will be less satisfied on the job. This again may have been a function of sample size as stated previously.

Hypotheses H4 stated that flight attendants who have good communication with management will be more satisfied on the job. The results of the survey again showed a significant .303/Pearson Correlation. In fact, perceptions of rules and policies as being helpful to them, and good communication may be related.

XVIII. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The importance of assessing the Job Satisfaction levels of Flight Attendants using the Job Satisfaction survey, Locus of Control survey, and the Organizational Evaluation Survey will help in understanding the needs of flight attendants-individuals who serve travelers from all walks of life. This study may help airline administrators assess the needs of their employees. As stated previously, organizations will have to develop programs that will train and motivate each employee to perform at an optimum level in order to keep up with the changes within and outside of the organization’s environment.

Management of this major airline should consider developing rules that enhance each attendant’s job performance and train their supervisors to listen to the wants and needs of the flight attendants. This ties in with Flaherty’s study, that management has to develop rules and regulations that helps and not hinder an employee’s performance on the job. Furthermore, management may need to communicate all aspects of what each employee needs to accomplish and keep the channels open if they desire increases in job satisfaction.

Again, in reviewing the results of this study, perceptions of control did not seem to matter as it relates to job satisfaction, but perception of helpful rules and policies seem to be related to satisfaction.

XIX. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

With an average of 27.5 years of service, the benefit packages of these employees may need to be addressed. The veteran flight attendants’ may need greater medical and retirement benefits in relation to younger flight attendants. What appeals to one person may be inconsequential to another…some employees may be motivated by a significant raise, while another prefers the security of an employment contract. With this mature workforce, the present study shows a need to address the specific issues of flight attendants’ needs. Programs addressing a cafeteria approach to their benefits and needs should be examined when negotiating with the flight attendants’ union. The cafeteria approach may better meet the needs of each attendant, whether they want greater coverage in their medical benefits or a flexible working schedule, perceptions of helpful rules, or more communication to fit their needs.

A study should also be done across different types of organizations and how they relate to these findings in the airline industry.

XX. LIMITATIONS

Since the original sample size of 425 Hawaii based flight attendants were used, this research might not hold true for the airline industry in general. It is also not known how the entire sampling (all responding to all measures) may have affected the results.

XXI. RECOMMENDATIONS

his study showed some unexpected results. In particular, those perceiving more control on the job would have been thought to be more satisfied. This finding can be explained by either the flight attendants not really perceiving control on their jobs as being highly important (perhaps the Captain is really the boss). Or the disproportionate sample size (some responding and some not) may have contributed to these results. These ideas need to be studied further. Similarly, it is not known why as perception of downsizing as being detrimental increased, job satisfaction did not decrease. It was actually positive here. Perhaps this was a function of the disproportionate sample sizes obtained or possibly the flight attendants were well seasoned professionals who had been through a lot over their careers. The significant correlation between perceived rules and policies as helpful, and satisfaction, and flight attendants having good communication with management, and satisfaction, should also be verified in other studies. These tools may be quite helpful to management in running the organization and having satisfied employees.

With the advent of airline consolidation, airline debt loads, years of labor unrest, higher fares, and questionable services for passengers, the management of the airline should take a closer look at these issues. Based on the results of this study, flight attendants should be exposed to more open communications with management and be governed by rules that are seen to be helpful to them.

REFERENCES

Certo, S.C. (1997). Modern Management. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Choy, D.G. (2001). Organizational Evaluation Survey.

Cobb, A. (1998). Minority registered nurses and job satisfaction. Unpublished  Master’s Thesis. College of Notre Dame. Belmont, CA. , CA.

Dessler, G. (2000). Management: Leading People and Organizations in the 21st Century. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Durr, L.W. (1996). Job satisfaction in human resources. A state employment Agency. Unpublished master’s thesis. Fort Hays State University. Hays, Kansas.

Grensing-Phopha, L. (2000). Talk to me. HR Magazine. 453). 66-72.

Gunn, J.C. (2000). Property management team training pays high dividends. Houston Business Journal. 31(6), 16-18. 16-18.

Hadden, R. (1999). If layoffs come, honesty will be the best policy. Washington Business Journal. 18(13), 53.

Herzberg, F., (1968). One more time: How do you motivate employees? pp. 103-114). Classics of Organizational Behavior 2nd ed. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers & Publishing, Inc.

Hiltebeitel, K.M., Leauby, B.A., Karkin, J.M., & Morris, T.W. (2000). Job Satisfaction among entry-level accountants. CPA Journal. 70(5), 76-79.

Institute of Directors (1997). United by name. Institute of Directors. 50(12), 22.

Kleiner, C. (1998). Coffee, tea, or a jail term? U.S. News & World Report. 125(19), 81.

Mullins, R. (2000). Continuing education program is investment. Birmingham Business Journal. 17(25Z), 19.

Murphy, A.G. (198). Hidden transcripts of flight attendants resistance. Management Communication Quarterly. 11(4), 499-536.

O’Driscoll, M.P., & Bechr, T.A. (2000). Moderating effects of perceived control And need clarity on the relationship between role stressors and employee effective reactions. Journal of Social Psychology. 140(2), 151-160.

Palmer, C., & East, D. (1993). Job satisfaction among support staff in twelve  Academic libraries. College & research Libraries. 54, 43-46.

Piturro, M. (1999). Alternatives to downsizing. Management Review. 88(9), 37-42.

Schermerhorn, J.R., Hunt, J.G., & Osborn, R.N. (1997). Organizational Behavior 6th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Smithsons, C. (200). When passengers explode. Report/Newsmagazine. (Alberta Edition). 26(47), 42.

Spector, P.E. (1985). Measurement of human service staff satisfaction. Development of the job satisfaction survey. American Journal of Community Psychology. 13, 693-713

Spector, P.E. (1994). Job Satisfaction Survey.

Spector. P.E. (1999). Overview of the Work Locus of Control Scale.

United Airlines History (2000). History of United Airlines.

Vyskocil-Czajkowski, T.L., & Gilmore, S.A. (1992). Job satisfaction of selected Institutional food service supervisors. Journal of Food Service Systems. 7, 29-42.

Zellner, W. Arndt, M. & Carney, D. (2001). The Ever-Shrinking skies. 37216(22), 34-37.

Zia-Mian, M.B. (1997). Supervisory style, job satisfaction, and locus of Control: a comparative analysis between Jamaican and American employees. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University t of South Florida, Tampa, Florida.

]]> http://infosciencetoday.org/type/articles/job-satisfaction-and-some-explanatory-variables-among-flight-attendants.html/feed 0 Work for the library science and information retrieval in Sweden http://infosciencetoday.org/library-science/work-for-the-library-science-and-information-retrieval-in-sweden.html http://infosciencetoday.org/library-science/work-for-the-library-science-and-information-retrieval-in-sweden.html#comments Thu, 01 Oct 2009 22:55:41 +0000 admin http://infosciencetoday.org/?p=352 The goal for the education of students in library science and information retrieval is that they be able to use the library as information resource. Students should feel good familiar with search strategies, with the currently common databases for Malmo Municipality and the concepts of the source list and source criticism. Training should be adapted to the level needed for the students to manage their Goal. This requires a strong anchoring,

The guidelines should be seen as a foundation for high school libraries, continuing education in information retrieval. All students must have a good reason to seek information for their own learning in the future.

To reach this goal requires that all personnel receive continuous training in information searching and basic computer knowledge. Good access to equipment and program is a must.

Working with literature and lässtimulerande approach is not included in this plan without found in other documents on the respective school and the town library.

The plan is drawn up the spring semester of 2007.

Pre-school – Year 3

Goals that pupils should have attained at the end of year 3:

• Getting to know the library and its media

• Know the difference between fiction and reference books

• Willingness and desire to read

• Understanding of the need to be careful with the information they find and want to use

Guidelines

F-Class: 

  • A first introduction to the school library. Children should know where the school library exist and that they are welcome there to read and borrow books. That you can get learn much by reading books or ask a librarian.
  • The children do visit the town library. That is where they can go to their leisure.

Year 1-2:

  • Pupils should know that it is free to borrow. Pupils should learn to be afraid of books.
  • Obligatory visits to neighborhood library year 2.
  • It will be a natural part of students’ work to use the school library. Continuity and close collaboration between teachers and school librarians.
  • Know the difference between between picture books and chapter books.
  • Know what an author and illustrator is.
  • Know the difference between fiction and non-fiction.
  • Familiar with the alphabetical order and the structure that exists in all Swedish libraries.

Year 3:

  • Pupils should be able to script.
  • Pupils should be on their own to search for children’s books arranged according to a fixed order, where the author’s surname book’s governing placement. Students should be aware that there are records and table of contents facilitate the fact finding.

Year 4 – year 6

Goals that pupils should have attained at the end of year 6:

• Knowledge of different types of media such as books, articles, CD-ROMs and Internet resources

• Understand simple search strategies on the Internet

• Knowledge of the hazards that exist in the network use and how to protect themselves

• To use non-fiction and reference books – both printed and in digital form

• Understand that nonfiction is placed on the website

• Mastery of simpler searches in both the public school library catalog, and understand based directory of information was books are arranged

• Able to search any databases

• Learn to always check and specify the source from where you downloaded the data

Guidelines

Year 4:

  • Know what a database and a search engine is for nothing. Understanding the difference between search engines (eg Google) and link directories (eg Länkskafferiet). Get knowledge of the Google search engine and database NE. Know where to find useful links to essential information, such as Länkskafferiet. Learn to limit their “area” in a search.
  • Teaching in SELMA, school library catalog
  • How to manage personal data, Conduct on the Web and instant messaging language and common abbreviations used on the web.
  • Introduction to a spread plant structure and function.

Year 5:

  • Introduction to databases such as Landguiden and NE.
  • Obligatory visits to neighborhood library. Teaching in MALIN, Public library catalog.

Year 6:

  • Continue to develop the concepts of sources, bibliography and the importance of source of critical thinking.

Guidelines in year 7 – year 9

Goals that pupils should have attained at the end of grade 9:

• Knowledge of various search strategies, in both print and electronic media as well as knowledge on how to formulate relevant keywords

• Knowledge of and skill in searching the various databases

• Understand that you must specify the source of the information retrieved and to write a proper bibliography

• Understand the importance to sort, evaluate and ethically evaluate the information you are looking for

• Familiar with copyright and other ethical issues for the Internet

Guidelines

Year 7:

  • Obligatory visits to neighborhood library.
  • Introduction of author Alex lexicon in the school library.
  • Thorough knowledge of how to search the encyclopedias, records and tables of contents.
  • Refresher / immersion in the use of public libraries library catalog MALIN.

Year 8:

  • Repetition and depth of the concepts of sources, both printed and in electronic form and source criticism.
  • Know the copyright in the school.

Year 9:

  • Familiarity with the school on the existing databases. Introduction of Article search databases, Media Archives and the Press Text of neighborhood library.
  • Good knowledge of source criticism.
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